arctic average temperature

Found inside – Page 313Due to the countryÊs location in the Arctic, the average temperature in the annual average never rises above 50°F (10°C). Greenland is characterized by several climatic zones including the High Arctic, the Arctic, the Low Arctic, ... Ryu, J.-H., and K. Hayhoe, 2017: Observed and CMIP5 modeled influence of large-scale circulation on summer precipitation and drought in the South-Central United States. This is partially mitigated through the use of model weighting and pattern scaling. A. O'Donnell, T. R. Chowdhury, H. Santruckova, G. Shaver, V. L. Sloan, C. C. Treat, M. R. Turetsky, M. P. Waldrop, and K. P. Wickland, 2016: Potential carbon emissions dominated by carbon dioxide from thawed permafrost soils. It is almost 1.5 times the United States of America's size, but slightly smaller than Russia. Significant advances have also been made in the understanding of observed individual extreme weather events, such as the 2011 hot summer in Texas and Oklahoma,209,210,211 the recent California agricultural drought,212,213 the spring 2013 wet season in the Upper Midwest,214,215 and most recently Hurricane Harvey (see Box 2.5),216,217,218 and how they relate to increasing global temperatures and associated climate changes. Climate models generally produce an arctic warming between two to three times the global mean warming. As described in Sweet et al. Even the latest experimental high-resolution simulations, however, are unable to simulate all of the important fine-scale processes occurring at regional to local scales. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA, pp. Record warm temperatures in the Eurasian Arctic were associated with extreme conditions in the ocean and on the land. Found inside – Page 13reached an average annual temperature of 10e20 C [4]. Quaternary glaciations, pushed the Arctic Ocean to a polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges. The temperature of the surface of ... White, 2006: A 20th century acceleration in global sea-level rise. A., J. Tipping point 4: The Arctic Permafrost. This graph shows the average monthly Arctic sea ice extent each September since 1979, derived from satellite observations. Serreze, M. C., A. P. Barrett, J. C. Stroeve, D. N. Kindig, and M. M. Holland, 2009: The emergence of surface-based Arctic amplification. Kopp, R. E., A. C. Kemp, K. Bittermann, B. P. Horton, J. P. Donnelly, W. R. Gehrels, C. C. Hay, J. X. Mitrovica, E. D. Morrow, and S. Rahmstorf, 2016: Temperature-driven global sea-level variability in the Common Era. [in “Explaining Extreme Events of 2011 from a Climate Perspective”]. al 2015248), they do not include all the processes relevant to climate at local scales. Tracking recent environmental changes relative to historical records, Archive of previous Report Cards and videos >, The sustained transformation to a warmer, less frozen and biologically changed Arctic remains clear. Rhein, M., S. R. Rintoul, S. Aoki, E. Campos, D. Chambers, R. A. Feely, S. Gulev, G. C. Johnson, S. A. Josey, A. Kostianoy, C. Mauritzen, D. Roemmich, L. D. Talley, and F. Wang, 2013: Observations: Ocean. To many office workers, this will hardly come as a surprise. Miller, K. G., R. E. Kopp, B. P. Horton, J. V. Browning, and A. C. Kemp, 2013: A geological perspective on sea-level rise and its impacts along the U.S. mid-Atlantic coast. There are many different types of physical observations, or “indicators,” that can be used to track how climate is changing (Ch. The Antarctic is land surrounded by ocean. This chapter is based on the Climate Science Special Report (CSSR), which is Volume I of the Fourth National Climate Assessment (available at science2017.globalchange.gov). Future rise amounts are projected to be less than along other U.S. coastlines due to continued uplift and other effects stemming from past and future glacier shrinkage. Fisher, J. However, certain aspects of the 2017 season were unprecedented, and at least two of these aspects are consistent with what might be expected as the planet warms. Global average sea level has risen by about 7–8 inches (16–21 cm) since 1900, with almost half this rise occurring since 1993 as oceans have warmed and land-based ice has melted (very high confidence). Recent research shows that Arctic sea ice is melting due to climate warming. Table of the average monthly values used for temperature and precipitation sums. ), disagreement or lack of opinions among experts. White, L. F. Konikow, C. M. Domingues, J. G. Cogley, E. Rignot, J. M. Gregory, M. R. van den Broeke, A. J. Monaghan, and I. Velicogna, 2011: Revisiting the Earth's sea-level and energy budgets from 1961 to 2008. Limiting global average temperature increase to 3.6°F (2°C) will require a major reduction in emissions. 2013154). Getting the temperature right can boost job satisfaction, productivity and collaboration. Over the entire period of record, the Southeast has had the least warming due to a combination of natural variations and human influences;87 since the early 1960s, however, the Southeast has been warming at an accelerated rate.88,89, Over the past two decades, the number of high temperature records recorded in the United States far exceeds the number of low temperature records. It is very likely that by mid-century the Arctic Ocean will be almost entirely free of sea ice by late summer for the first time in about 2 million years.26,149As climate models have tended to under-predict recent sea ice loss,143 it is possible this will happen before mid-century. Over climate timescales of multiple decades, however, global temperature continues to steadily increase. Several atmospheric reanalyses (e.g., 20th Century Reanalysis, Climate Forecast System Reanalysis, ERA-Interim, and Modern Era Reanalysis for Research and Applications) confirm rapid warming at the surface since 1979, and observed trends closely track the ensemble mean of the reanalyses.265 Several recently improved satellite datasets document changes in middle tropospheric temperatures.7,266 Longer-term changes are depicted using multiple paleo analyses (e.g., Trouet et al. Average monthly air temperatures were well below freezing across much of the Arctic Ocean in October, the exceptions being along the coastal regions of the Barents Sea and across the North Atlantic region. Ciais, P., C. Sabine, G. Bala, L. Bopp, V. Brovkin, J. Canadell, A. Chhabra, R. DeFries, J. Galloway, M. Heimann, C. Jones, C. Le Quéré, R. B. Myneni, S. Piao, and P. Thornton, 2013: Carbon and other biogeochemical cycles. The average for the twelve-month period to September 2021 is 0.5°C above the 1991-2020 average. Major uncertainties are related to deep soil and thermokarst processes, as well as the persistence or degradation of massive ice (e.g., ice wedges) and the dependence of CO2 and CH4 uptake and production on vegetation and soil properties. The ability to accurately reproduce key aspects of Earth’s climate varies across climate models. Hirsch, R. M., and K. R. Ryberg, 2012: Has the magnitude of floods across the USA changed with global CO2 levels? Annual mean surface air temperature anomalies for the Arctic (67-90°N) and for the Global average (90°S-90°N) from 1950 to 2020. In the new economy, wind farms replace coal mines, hydrogen-powered fuel cells replace internal combustion engines, and cities are designed for people, not cars. Eco-Economy is a map of how to get from here to there. Like the earth as a whole, most of the Arctic's increase occurred during the last three decades. Data Sources: Land Surface Air Temperature : Sea Surface Temperature: or: Remote Sensed Surface … There is very high confidence in trends since 1895, based on the instrumental record, since this is a long-term record with measurements made with relatively high precision. Pederson, G. T., J. L. Betancourt, and G. J. McCabe, 2013: Regional patterns and proximal causes of the recent snowpack decline in the Rocky Mountains, U.S. Pelto, M. S., 2015: [Global Climate] Alpine glaciers [in “State of the Climate in 2014”]. Compared to damages from other types of extreme weather, those occurring due to thunderstorm-related weather hazards have increased the most since 1980,174 and there is some indication that, in a warmer world, the number of days with conditions conducive to severe thunderstorm activity is likely to increase.175,176,177. So Boris Kingma from Maastricht University Medical Center decided to take a closer look. Bartholomew, I. D., P. Nienow, A. Snape, T. J., and P. M. Forster, 2014: Decline of Arctic sea ice: Evaluation and weighting of CMIP5 projections. Our Arctic Series Cold Climate Heat Pumps are both the most advanced and cost effective air source heat pump on the market, with the ability to heat your home, office, shop, and pool/hot tub. (2017)94 documents projected changes in the 20-year return period amount using the LOCA data, and Figure 7.694 shows changes in 2-day totals for the 5-year return period using the CMIP5 suite of models. So the ocean warms the air a bit. Annual Mean Growth Rate of CO2 at Mauna Loa. Future changes in the frequency and intensity of meteorological systems causing heavy snow are less certain than temperature changes. The average for the twelve-month period to September 2021 is 0.5°C above the 1991-2020 average. Allen, J. T., and M. K. Tippett, 2015: The Characteristics of United States Hail Reports: 1955-2014. Clark, P. U., J. D. Shakun, S. A. Marcott, A. C. Mix, M. Eby, S. Kulp, A. Levermann, G. A. Milne, P. L. Pfister, B. D. Santer, D. P. Schrag, S. Solomon, T. F. Stocker, B. H. Strauss, A. J. Weaver, R. Winkelmann, D. Archer, E. Bard, A. Goldner, K. Lambeck, R. T. Pierrehumbert, and G.-K. Plattner, 2016: Consequences of twenty-first-century policy for multi-millennial climate and sea-level change. The Arctic Ocean is a circular basin, spanning 5.427 million square miles. Sweltering. Confidence is high in the substantial human contribution to GMSL rise since 1900, based on both statistical and physical modeling evidence. As discussed in CSSR,246 most NCA4 projections use a weighted multimodel average of the CMIP5 models based on a combination of model skill and model independence to provide multimodel ensemble projections of future temperature, precipitation, and other climate variables. Hayhoe, K., J. Edmonds, R. E. Kopp, A. N. LeGrande, B. M. Sanderson, M. F. Wehner, and D. J. Wuebbles, 2017: Climate Models, Scenarios, and Projections. Much research has been done to account for these issues, resulting in techniques that make adjustments at the station level to improve the homogeneity of the time series (e.g., Easterling and Peterson 1995, Menne and Williams 2009272,273). Global air temperature records date back to the 1880s and can offer a stand-in (proxy) for Arctic sea ice conditions; but such temperature records were initially collected at just 11 locations. These approaches are in general agreement. When students were asked to pick the most cost-effective mobile phone plan from two options in either a cool (19°C or 66F) or a warm (25°C or 77F) room, the group in the cooler room chose the right plan twice as often, suggesting complex decisions are more difficult when we’re warm. Hugelius, G., J. Strauss, S. Zubrzycki, J. W. Harden, E. A. G. Schuur, C. L. Ping, L. Schirrmeister, G. Grosse, G. J. Michaelson, C. D. Koven, J. The daily mean temperature of the Arctic area north of the 80th northern parallel is estimated from the average of the 00z and 12z analysis for all model grid points inside that area. 2020 is the warmest calendar year on record for Europe by a clear margin, with a temperature 1.2°C above the 1991-2020 average. Sutton, A. J., C. L. Sabine, R. A. Feely, W. J. Cai, M. F. Cronin, M. J. McPhaden, J. M. Morell, J. 201716 for more on detection and attribution). Found inside – Page 90The basis for this belief rests mainly on two factors: (1) the global average temperature increased during the 20th century, as did the CO2 concentration, and (2) climate models predict even greater increases in temperature in the 21st ... Feng, Z., L. R. Leung, S. Hagos, R. A. Houze, C. D. Burleyson, and K. Balaguru, 2016: More frequent intense and long-lived storms dominate the springtime trend in central US rainfall. The average temperature in Anchorage during summer is normally in the mid-sixties. It discusses climate trends and findings at the global scale, then focuses on specific areas, from observed and projected changes in temperature and precipitation to the importance of human choice in determining our climate future. That means desks with their own climate systems – heating units radiating warmth on to the tops of your legs, air vents you can open and close – like those in airplanes. And the anomalous Arctic heat has not been short-lived. Kopp, R. E., C. C. Hay, C. M. Little, and J. X. Mitrovica, 2015: Geographic variability of sea-level change. Some of these indicators, especially those derived from air temperature and precipitation observations, have nearly continuous data that extend back to the late 1800s in the United States (Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory)206 and the 1600s in Europe (Central England Temperature Record).207 These document century-scale changes in climate. Ice—present as snow, ice sheets, glaciers, sea ice, and permafrost—is a prominent feature and is sensitive to small temperature increases. Vose, R. S., S. Applequist, M. J. Menne, C. N. Williams Jr., and P. Thorne, 2012: An intercomparison of temperature trends in the US Historical Climatology Network and recent atmospheric reanalyses. Uncertainty in attribution relates to the reconstruction of past changes and the magnitude of unforced variability. PSMSL, 2016: Obtaining Tide Gauge Data. Under the ice and snow is land, not ocean. Hollesen, J., H. Matthiesen, A. Payne, A. E., and G. Magnusdottir, 2015: An evaluation of atmospheric rivers over the North Pacific in CMIP5 and their response to warming under RCP 8.5. ... Average Arctic sea ice to-date (first 289 days of the year) is the ninth lowest on record. Linear trend lines (dashed) are also shown over the 1990 to 2020 period. ACIA, 2005: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. This chapter is based on the collective effort of 32 authors, 3 review editors, and 18 contributing authors comprising the writing team for the Climate Science Special Report (CSSR),208 a featured U.S. doi: USGCRP, 2017: Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume I. Wuebbles, D. J., D. W. Fahey, K. A. Hibbard, D. J. Dokken, B. C. Stewart, and T. K. Maycock, Eds. What the volunteers didn’t know was that the room temperature was either being increased or decreased while they were there. An explanation of the input elements appears at the bottom of this page. Evidence for the expectation of an increase in the frequency and severity of landfalling atmospheric rivers on the U.S. West Coast comes from the CMIP-based climate change projection studies of Dettinger (2011).163 Warner et al. White, 2006: Flooding on California's Russian River: Role of atmospheric rivers. B., S. C. Elsner, and T. H. Jagger, 2015: The increasing efficiency of tornado days in the United States. Found inside – Page 266Arctic Maritime Businesses and the Resilience of the Marine Environment Eva Pongrácz, Victor Pavlov, ... 15 °C (extreme minimum −34 °C); Polar lows; Average wind speed 27 m/s; Average wave height 2 m Annual average temperature +4 °C; ... Melting sea ice does not contribute to sea level rise, but it does have other climate effects. The added freshwater makes the seawater less dense. Much larger increases are projected by late century: 2.3°–6.7°F (1.3°–3.7°C) under a lower scenario (RCP4.5) and 5.4°–11.0°F (3.0°–6.1°C) under a higher scenario (RCP8.5) relative to 1986–2015 (Figure 2.4).85, Extreme high temperatures are projected to increase even more than average temperatures. Kopp, R. E., R. M. Horton, C. M. Little, J. X. Mitrovica, M. Oppenheimer, D. J. Rasmussen, B. H. Strauss, and C. Tebaldi, 2014: Probabilistic 21st and 22nd century sea-level projections at a global network of tide-gauge sites. Emerging science regarding Antarctic ice sheet stability suggests that, for higher scenarios, a rise exceeding 8 feet (2.4 m) by 2100 is physically possible, although the probability of such an extreme outcome cannot currently be assessed. Increasing sea surface temperatures, rising sea levels, and changing patterns of precipitation, winds, nutrients, and ocean circulation are contributing to overall declining oxygen concentrations in many locations. Although extreme precipitation is one of the controlling factors in flood statistics, a variety of other compounding factors, including local land use, land-cover changes, and water management also play important roles. Continued improvements in climate modeling to represent the physical processes affecting the Earth’s climate system are aimed at reducing uncertainties. Mann, M. E., S. Rahmstorf, K. Kornhuber, B. Cold wave frequency was quantified using the Cold Spell Duration Index,269 heat wave frequency was quantified using the Warm Spell Duration Index,269 and heat wave intensity was quantified using the Heat Wave Magnitude Index Daily.270 Station-based index values were averaged into 4° grid boxes, which were then area-averaged into a time series for the contiguous United States. A lack of observations affects not only the ability to detect trends but also to quantify a potentially significant positive feedback to climate warming: the permafrost–carbon feedback. Easterling, D. R., J. R. Arnold, T. Knutson, K. E. Kunkel, A. N. LeGrande, L. R. Leung, R. S. Vose, D. E. Waliser, and M. F. Wehner, 2017: Precipitation Change in the United States. B., and R. W. Katz, 2013: US billion-dollar weather and climate disasters: Data sources, trends, accuracy and biases. As the world warms, the frequency and severity of these events are likely to increase due to increasing evaporation and higher atmospheric water vapor levels in the atmosphere.101,163,164,165. And it’s got mountains. Many of the projections shown in this report, for example, are either based on the original GCM simulations, or on the latest CMIP5 simulations that have been statistically downscaled using the LOcalized Constructed Analogs (LOCA) ESDM.247 It is important to note that while ESDMs effectively remove bias and increase spatial resolution, and while RCMs add additional physical insight at smaller spatial scales by resolving processes such as convection (e.g., Prein et. In Australia, stifling heat cools productivity to the tune of US$6.2 billion. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Silver Spring, MD, 75 pp. Physically based arguments and observed increases in CO2 and CH4 emissions as permafrost thaws indicate that the feedback is positive. Cheng, L., K. E. Trenberth, J. Fasullo, T. Boyer, J. Abraham, and J. Zhu, 2017: Improved estimates of ocean heat content from 1960 to 2015. Sweet, W. V., and J. The primary uncertainties for surface data relate to historical changes in station location, temperature instrumentation, observing practice, and spatial sampling (particularly in areas and periods with low station density, such as the intermountain West in the early 20th century). However, this increase in solar forcing uncertainty is not sufficiently large to reduce confidence that anthropogenic activities dominate industrial-era forcing. The ~60 cm maximum contribution by 2100 from Antarctica in Pfeffer et al. Russia’s Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute has compiled ice charts since 1933. A. Arendt, S. O'Neel, A. J. Johnson, and C. Kienholz, 2015: Surface melt dominates Alaska glacier mass balance. Uncertainties in the magnitude of ocean warming stem from the disparate measurements of ocean temperature over the last century. Although the global mean exhibits low interannual variability, regional contrasts are large. In October 2016, an 11-member core writing team was tasked with capturing the most important CSSR key findings and generating an Executive Summary. Note that generating figures takes 5 or 6 seconds; please be patient. Box 2.3: The Climate Science Special Report (CSSR), NCA4 Volume I, Box 2.4: Cumulative Carbon and 1.5°/2°C Targets, Box 2.5: The 2017 Atlantic Hurricane Season. (2014)77 fused multiple sources of information accounting for the different individual process contributing to GMSL rise. Kovilakam, M., and S. Mahajan, 2015: Black carbon aerosol-induced Northern Hemisphere tropical expansion. In all, around 2% of office hours in the UK are wasted by battles for climate control, costing the economy more than £13 billion each year. (2017)291 infer the sensitivity of permafrost area to globally averaged warming to be 1.5 million square miles (4 million square km), constraining a group of climate models with the observed spatial distribution of permafrost; this sensitivity is 20% higher than previous studies. Westra, S., L. V. Alexander, and F. W. Zwiers, 2013: Global increasing trends in annual maximum daily precipitation. Jevrejeva, S., A. Grinsted, and J. C. Moore, 2009: Anthropogenic forcing dominates sea level rise since 1850. The average temperature in Anchorage during summer is normally in the mid-sixties. Second, the intensity of heavy rain, including heavy rain produced by tropical cyclones, increases in a warmer world (Figure 2.6). Bakker, P., A. Schmittner, J. T. M. Lenaerts, A. Abe‐Ouchi, D. Bi, M. R. Broeke, W. ‐L Chan, A. Hu, R. L. Beadling, S. J. Marsland, S. H. Mernild, O. Engelhart, S. E., and B. P. Horton, 2012: Holocene sea level database for the Atlantic coast of the United States. Fahey, D. W., S. Doherty, K. A. Hibbard, A. Romanou, and P. C. Taylor, 2017: Physical Drivers of Climate Change. There is medium confidence that human activities have contributed to the observed poleward expansion, taking into account uncertainties in the magnitude of observed trends and a possible large contribution of natural climate variability. Present-day emissions of nearly 10 GtC per year suggest that there is no analog for this century any time in at least the last 50 million years. A lot of carbon. (2017),101 Table 8.1; and additional details on what is new since NCA3 can be found in Fahey et al. (2014)77 and Slangen et al. This includes the sensitivity of observed snow changes to the spatial distribution of observing stations and to historical changes in station location, rain gauges, and observing practices, particularly for snow. Easterling et al. “By exposing yourself to mild cold and mild warm environments you get both cardiovascular and metabolic exercise,” he said. As discussed in Kopp et al. Le Quéré, C., R. M. Andrew, J. G. Canadell, S. Sitch, J. I. Korsbakken, G. P. Peters, A. C. Manning, T. A. Boden, P. P. Tans, R. A. Houghton, R. F. Keeling, S. Alin, O. D. Andrews, P. Anthoni, L. Barbero, L. Bopp, F. Chevallier, L. P. Chini, P. Ciais, K. Currie, C. Delire, S. C. Doney, P. Friedlingstein, T. Gkritzalis, I. Harris, J. Hauck, V. Haverd, M. Hoppema, K. Klein Goldewijk, A. K. Jain, E. Kato, A. Körtzinger, P. Landschützer, N. Lefèvre, A. Lenton, S. Lienert, D. Lombardozzi, J. R. Melton, N. Metzl, F. Millero, P. M. S. Monteiro, D. R. Munro, J. E. M. S. Nabel, S. I. Nakaoka, K. O'Brien, A. Olsen, A. M. Omar, T. Ono, D. Pierrot, B. Poulter, C. Rödenbeck, J. Salisbury, U. Schuster, J. Schwinger, R. Séférian, I. Skjelvan, B. D. Stocker, A. J. Sutton, T. Takahashi, H. Tian, B. Tilbrook, I. T. van der Laan-Luijkx, G. R. van der Werf, N. Viovy, A. P. Walker, A. J. Wiltshire, and S. Zaehle, 2016: Global carbon budget 2016. This heat wave, without human - induced warming, could happen only one time in 80,000 years, according to an attribution study published in July 2020. Found inside – Page 56In comparison to other Canadian Arctic marine areas, this region is warmer with a narrower mean annual temperature range of 26–37 Celsius degrees from south to north. Daily mean temperatures in January (–20°C in the south, ... Found inside – Page 59The Arctic mostly has mean annual precipitations below 500 mm due to its prevailing low temperatures (e.g. Serreze and Barry 2005). Amounts of precipitation range from less than 150 mm/year in the central Arctic Basin, and not much more ... Important additions to the Arctic Observing Network (AON) systems and data products and advancements in process-level understanding have improved the quality and accessibility of information used to produce the Arctic Report Card. The last few years have also seen record-breaking, climate-related weather extremes, the three warmest years on record for the globe, and continued decline in arctic sea ice. The average annual land surface air temperature north of 60° N for October 2019-September 2020 was the second highest on record since at least 1900. Walsh, K. J. E., S. J. Camargo, G. A. Vecchi, A. S. Daloz, J. Elsner, K. Emanuel, M. Horn, Y.-K. Lim, M. Roberts, C. Patricola, E. Scoccimarro, A. H. Sobel, S. Strazzo, G. Villarini, M. Wehner, M. Zhao, J. P. Kossin, T. LaRow, K. Oouchi, S. Schubert, H. Wang, J. Bacmeister, P. Chang, F. Chauvin, C. Jablonowski, A. Kumar, H. Murakami, T. Ose, K. A. Reed, R. Saravanan, Y. Yamada, C. M. Zarzycki, P. L. Vidale, J. (2006),316 Neiman et al. Future changes outside the range projected by climate models cannot be ruled out, and due to their systematic tendency to underestimate temperature change during past warm periods, models may be more likely to underestimate than to overestimate long-term future change. If your boss still won’t ease off on the air conditioning, there are other ways to warm up. Elsner, M. M., L. Cuo, N. Voisin, J. S. Deems, A. F. Hamlet, J. The average temperature in January is almost everywhere below -10 °C (14 °F), and it goes down to -45 °C (-49 °F) in the Eastern inland areas. Lewis, T.K. Image Credit:  Icebergs (Ilulisat, Vestgronland, Greenland) by Greenland Travel via Flickr. Friedlingstein, P., S. Solomon, G. K. Plattner, R. Knutti, P. Ciais, and M. R. Raupach, 2011: Long-term climate implications of twenty-first century options for carbon dioxide emission mitigation. Along U.S. coastlines, how much and how fast sea level rises will not just depend on global trends; it will also be affected by changes in ocean circulation, land elevation, and the rotation and the gravitational field of Earth, which are affected by how much land ice melts, and where. A. T., E. E. McPhee-Shaw, P. Chua, E. Kingsley, M. Denny, R. Phillips, S. J. Bograd, L. D. Zeidberg, and W. F. Gilly, 2012: Natural intrusions of hypoxic, low pH water into nearshore marine environments on the California coast. (2016),58 who conducted a meta-analysis of geological regional sea level (RSL) reconstructions, spanning the last 3,000 years, from 24 locations around the world, as well as tide gauge data from 66 sites and the tide-gauge-based GMSL reconstruction of Hay et al. Delworth, T. L., F. Zeng, G. A. Vecchi, X. Yang, L. Zhang, and R. Zhang, 2016: The North Atlantic Oscillation as a driver of rapid climate change in the Northern Hemisphere.

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